Cancer

Older age: Cancer risk rises as years pass because cell-repair systems slow and damage accumulates. Most cancers are diagnosed later in life, though some appear in children and young adults.

Hormone exposure: Long or high exposure to hormones like estrogen or androgens can raise risk for cancers such as breast, uterus, and prostate. Natural timing of first periods, pregnancies, and menopause shapes lifetime hormone exposure.

Chronic inflammation: Ongoing inflammation can drive repeated cell turnover and DNA damage, increasing cancer risk. Conditions like long-standing reflux or inflammatory bowel disease raise risk in the affected tissues.

Immune suppression: A weakened immune system makes it harder to clear virus-infected or abnormal cells, raising cancer risk. Higher risks are seen after organ transplant, with long-term immune-suppressing medicines, or with advanced HIV infection.

Ionizing radiation: High or repeated exposure to X-rays, CT scans, or past radiation therapy can damage DNA and increase later cancer risk. Environmental sources from nuclear accidents also contribute, though these exposures are uncommon.

UV radiation: Ultraviolet light from the sun damages skin cell DNA and increases the risk of skin cancer. Risk builds with cumulative exposure over the years.

Air pollution: Fine particles and diesel exhaust are linked to lung cancer and may affect other organs. Urban or industrial air pollution can add to lifetime cancer risk.

Occupational exposures: Workplace carcinogens such as asbestos, benzene, formaldehyde, vinyl chloride, and silica increase cancer risk in exposed workers. Risk often depends on the intensity and duration of exposure.

Radon gas: This natural radioactive gas can accumulate indoors and is a leading environmental cause of lung cancer. Risk rises with higher indoor levels and longer time spent in affected buildings.

Infections: Certain infections raise cancer risk, including HPV, hepatitis B and C, Epstein–Barr virus, HTLV-1, and Helicobacter pylori. They can trigger chronic inflammation or direct changes in cells that lead to cancer.

Chemical contaminants: Arsenic in drinking water and aflatoxins from moldy grains or nuts are well-established cancer risks in some regions. Some industrial solvents and byproducts can also contribute when exposure is high or prolonged.

Prior cancer therapy: Some chemotherapy drugs and earlier radiation therapy can increase the chance of a second cancer years later. Risk depends on the specific medicines, total dose, and age at treatment.

Precancerous changes: Abnormal tissue changes like colon polyps, Barrett’s esophagus, or cervical dysplasia signal higher local cancer risk. These changes reflect early steps toward cancer in those tissues.

Organ scarring: Long-standing scarring in organs, such as liver cirrhosis, raises cancer risk in that tissue. Scarring creates cycles of injury and repair that can cause DNA damage over time.

Tobacco use: Cigarette smoking and other tobacco products cause many cancers, including lung, head and neck, bladder, and pancreatic. Quitting at any age lowers future risk and improves treatment outcomes.

Alcohol intake: Regular drinking raises the risk of breast, colorectal, liver, esophageal, and head and neck cancers. Cutting down or avoiding alcohol reduces cumulative risk.

Excess body weight: Overweight and obesity increase risk of at least 13 cancers, including breast (postmenopausal), colorectal, uterine, kidney, and pancreatic. Sustained weight loss can lower hormone and inflammation signals that drive tumor growth.

Physical inactivity: Too little moderate or vigorous activity raises risk of breast, colorectal, and endometrial cancers. Regular exercise helps regulate insulin, sex hormones, and inflammation that influence tumor development.

Sedentary time: Long periods of sitting are linked to higher risks of colon, endometrial, and lung cancers independent of exercise. Breaking up sitting with short movement breaks may reduce these effects.

Diet quality: Diets high in ultra-processed foods, added sugars, and low in whole foods are associated with higher overall cancer risk. Emphasizing minimally processed foods supports healthier hormone and metabolic profiles.

Red and processed meats: Frequent intake of processed meats and high amounts of red meat raise colorectal cancer risk. Limiting processed meats and keeping red meat to modest portions lowers exposure to carcinogenic compounds.

Cooking methods: Charring or high-temperature frying/grilling of meats forms carcinogens like HCAs and PAHs. Using lower-heat methods, marinating, and avoiding charring can reduce these exposures.

Fiber and plants: Higher fiber, whole grains, legumes, fruits, and vegetables are linked to lower colorectal and overall cancer risk. These foods support a healthier microbiome and reduce harmful byproducts in the gut.

Hormone therapy: Prolonged use of combined estrogen-progestin therapy increases breast cancer risk, while estrogen-only therapy can raise uterine cancer risk. Using the lowest effective dose for the shortest time and regular review with a clinician can reduce risk.

Reproductive choices: Having children earlier, having more children, and breastfeeding are associated with lower lifetime breast and ovarian cancer risk. Choosing to breastfeed when possible can confer modest protection.

Tobacco-free living: Avoid smoking and vaping, and stay away from secondhand smoke. Tobacco is linked to many cancers, including lung, throat, bladder, and pancreatic cancer.

HPV and Hep B vaccines: Get vaccinated against human papillomavirus (HPV) and hepatitis B if you’re eligible. These vaccines lower the risk of cervical, anal, throat, and liver cancers.

Sun and UV safety: Use broad‑spectrum sunscreen, wear protective clothing, and seek shade, especially at midday. This helps prevent skin cancer, including melanoma.

Limit alcohol: If you drink, keep it light—fewer drinks per week lowers risk. Alcohol raises the chance of breast, colorectal, mouth, throat, and liver cancers.

Healthy body weight: Aim for a weight that’s right for your body over the long term. Keeping weight steady can reduce risk for several cancers, including breast and colorectal cancer.

Move most days: Build regular activity into your week with walking, cycling, or sports. Physical activity helps lower risk for colon, breast, and other cancers.

Plant‑forward eating: Fill most meals with vegetables, fruit, beans, and whole grains, and limit processed and red meats. This pattern is linked with lower colorectal and overall cancer risk.

Screening and check‑ups: Stay up to date on age‑ and risk‑based tests like mammograms, colonoscopy or stool tests, Pap/HPV tests, and low‑dose CT for heavy smokers. Screening can find cancer early or catch precancerous changes.

Home radon testing: Test your home for radon and fix high levels with ventilation or sealing. Radon exposure raises lung cancer risk, even in non‑smokers.

Safer work practices: Use protective gear and follow safety rules if you work around dusts, fumes, solvents, or other chemicals. Reducing exposure can lower occupational cancer risks.

Sexual health steps: Use condoms or dental dams and consider HPV vaccination to reduce infection risks. Safer sex lowers the chance of HPV‑related cancers.

Family risk planning: If close relatives had cancers—especially at younger ages—ask about genetic counseling and testing. High‑risk families may benefit from earlier screening, extra monitoring, or risk‑reducing medicines.

Lasting fatigue: Tiredness may linger even after treatment ends. It can wax and wane and may not fully match how active you are.

Nerve changes: Tingling, numbness, or burning in hands or feet can follow certain drugs. These sensations may slowly improve, stay the same, or rarely progress.

Cognitive changes: Many notice forgetfulness, slower thinking, or trouble focusing after therapy. These changes often ease over time but can persist for some.

Heart strain: Some treatments can weaken the heart muscle or affect rhythms. Your care team may monitor heart function for years.

Lymphedema: Swelling of an arm, leg, or chest can occur when lymph nodes are removed or damaged during cancer care. It can appear months or years later and may need ongoing management.

Bone thinning: Therapies that lower hormones can speed bone loss. This raises fracture risk in the spine, hip, or wrist.

Fertility changes: Some treatments reduce sperm count or affect egg supply. Periods may become irregular or stop, and pregnancy planning may need specialist input.

Sexual health: People may experience pain, dryness, erectile changes, or lower desire. Body image shifts after cancer can also affect intimacy.

Chronic pain: Scars, joint stiffness, or nerve injury can cause ongoing pain. Gentle movement, medications, or procedures may help.

Secondary cancers: A small number develop a new, different cancer years after certain treatments. Lifelong screening plans aim to catch problems early.

Digestive issues: Bowel urgency, diarrhea, constipation, or reflux can follow surgery or radiation. Some notice food triggers and benefit from tailored nutrition plans.

Emotional health: Worry, low mood, or post-treatment anxiety can surface after cancer ends. Support from counseling, peers, or medication can make a real difference.

Surgery: Removing a tumor can relieve pain, prevent blockages, or improve how a body part works. For some cancers, surgery aims to cure; for others, it reduces symptoms and improves comfort.

Radiation therapy: Focused beams target cancer areas to shrink tumors and ease pain or bleeding. It can be used alone or with other treatments, often in short daily sessions over several weeks.

Physical therapy: Targeted exercises help rebuild strength, balance, and endurance after treatment. Therapists teach safe ways to move and manage fatigue so daily tasks feel more doable.

Occupational therapy: Practical strategies make bathing, dressing, cooking, and work tasks safer and easier. Adaptive tools and energy-conservation tips help you save strength for what matters most.

Nutrition counseling: A dietitian helps with appetite loss, nausea, weight changes, or swallowing issues. Plans focus on foods you enjoy and can tolerate, plus supplements if needed.

Exercise programs: Gentle, regular activity can reduce fatigue, preserve muscle, and lift mood. Plans are tailored to your energy level, treatment schedule, and any movement limits.

Psychological counseling: Counseling can reduce anxiety, low mood, and sleep problems, and build coping skills. Options include one-on-one therapy, group support, or family sessions.

Pain procedures: Nerve blocks, spinal treatments, or targeted injections can relieve hard-to-control pain. These can lower the need for pain pills and improve activity and sleep.

Palliative care: A supportive team focuses on comfort, symptom relief, and quality of life at any stage. They help align care with your goals and support caregivers too.

Lymphedema therapy: Specialized massage, compression, and exercises help manage swelling after lymph node removal or radiation. Early care can prevent worsening and protect skin health.

Speech therapy: Therapists help with speech, voice, and swallowing changes after head, neck, or brain treatments. Strategies and exercises can make eating and communication safer and clearer.

Fertility counseling: Before treatment, specialists discuss options like egg, sperm, or embryo freezing. They also address timing, pregnancy safety, and family-building after therapy.

Smoking cessation: Quitting tobacco can improve healing, reduce treatment side effects, and lower recurrence risk. Support includes counseling, quit plans, and nicotine-replacement options.

Acupuncture: Fine needles placed at specific points may help with nausea, hot flashes, pain, or nerve symptoms. Ask your care team which issues it may help and how many sessions are typical.

Massage therapy: Gentle massage can ease muscle tension, anxiety, and sleep problems. Oncology-trained therapists adjust techniques for ports, surgical areas, and lymphedema risk.

Sleep support: A steady sleep routine, light exposure in the morning, and relaxing wind-down habits can improve rest. Better sleep often boosts energy and thinking during the day.

Symptom tracking: Keeping notes on pain, nausea, bowel habits, or early symptoms of cancer helps your team act quickly. Simple logs or apps can reveal patterns and triggers you might miss.

Social work support: Social workers help with transportation, work or school accommodations, insurance, and financial aid. They can connect you with local resources and support groups.

Sexual health therapy: Specialists address pain with sex, body-image changes, low desire, and intimacy concerns. Options may include lubricants, pelvic floor therapy, and communication strategies.

Platinum drugs: Cisplatin, carboplatin, and oxaliplatin damage cancer cell DNA so the cells can’t divide. They’re used in many solid tumors, sometimes with other drugs.

Taxanes: Paclitaxel, docetaxel, and nab‑paclitaxel stop cancer cells from dividing by freezing their internal “skeleton.” Common uses include breast, lung, and ovarian cancers.

Anthracyclines: Doxorubicin and epirubicin block enzymes cancer cells need to copy DNA. Doctors monitor heart health during treatment and may limit lifetime dose.

Antimetabolites: 5‑fluorouracil, capecitabine, gemcitabine, and pemetrexed disrupt DNA building blocks. They’re common in colorectal, pancreatic, and lung cancer care.

Topoisomerase inhibitors: Irinotecan and etoposide interfere with DNA unwinding in tumor cells. These drugs often pair with others in multi‑drug regimens.

Alkylating agents: Cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, bendamustine, and temozolomide damage DNA so cancer cells die. They’re used across blood cancers and some solid tumors.

EGFR inhibitors: Erlotinib, gefitinib, afatinib, and osimertinib target tumor cells driven by EGFR signals. Testing guides who is most likely to benefit.

HER2‑targeted therapy: Trastuzumab, pertuzumab, trastuzumab deruxtecan, and T‑DM1 focus on HER2‑positive cancers. They can shrink tumors and lower the chance of recurrence.

VEGF pathway blockers: Bevacizumab and ramucirumab cut off tumor blood supply. These drugs are often added to chemotherapy for several advanced cancers.

BRAF/MEK inhibitors: Dabrafenib plus trametinib or encorafenib plus binimetinib target BRAF‑mutated tumors. Matching the drug to the mutation is essential.

ALK and ROS1 inhibitors: Alectinib, lorlatinib, and crizotinib block growth signals in certain lung cancers. These tablets can control disease for extended periods.

PARP inhibitors: Olaparib, niraparib, rucaparib, and talazoparib exploit DNA‑repair weaknesses in some ovarian, breast, pancreatic, and prostate cancers. They’re often used as maintenance therapy after chemotherapy.

CDK4/6 inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib slow cell‑cycle engines in hormone receptor–positive breast cancer. They’re usually combined with endocrine therapy.

BTK inhibitors: Ibrutinib, acalabrutinib, and zanubrutinib target B‑cell signaling in CLL and some lymphomas. Many take these as daily pills over months to years.

PD‑1/PD‑L1 immunotherapy: Pembrolizumab, nivolumab, atezolizumab, and durvalumab help the immune system recognize cancer. They can work for a long time, though immune‑related side effects need prompt attention.

CTLA‑4 inhibitor: Ipilimumab removes a brake on immune cells so they can attack tumors. It may be combined with PD‑1 drugs in melanoma and other cancers.

CAR‑T cell therapy: Tisagenlecleucel and axicabtagene ciloleucel re‑engineer your own immune cells to fight blood cancers. These are given in specialized centers with close monitoring.

Breast hormone therapy: Tamoxifen, anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane lower or block estrogen in hormone receptor–positive breast cancer. They reduce recurrence risk and are often taken for 5–10 years.

Prostate hormone therapy: Leuprolide, goserelin, degarelix, abiraterone, and enzalutamide lower or block testosterone signals. These drugs can control advanced prostate cancer and ease symptoms.

Antinausea medicines: Ondansetron, aprepitant, and olanzapine help prevent chemotherapy‑related nausea. Good control allows many to continue treatment comfortably.

White‑cell boosters: Filgrastim and pegfilgrastim lower the risk of infection by raising neutrophil counts after chemotherapy. This support can keep cancer care on schedule.

Bone‑strengthening drugs: Zoledronic acid and denosumab protect bones when cancer has spread or when hormone therapy thins bone. They also lower the risk of painful fractures.